Cultural challenges regarding Volvo entering China Essay

Cultural challenges regarding Volvo entering China - Essay Example xvi). The country’s culture will determine how the firm will respond to strategic issues, and how these issues are interpreted (Becker, 2000, p. 90). Sweden verses China – the Cultural Challenges Hofstede’s cultural dimensions will be used as a framework to explain the cultural challenges between Sweden and China. These dimensions are widely used in different contexts, where there is going to a cross-cultural challenge, and different countries will fall within these dimensions (Steenkamp, 1999). Hofstede proposed that culture has different dimensions, and that these dimensions must be taken into account whenever one is looking at cross-cultural relationships. Volvo is based in Sweden, which obviously is a Western country. China is obvioiusly an Eastern country. As such, there is bound to be many cultural challenges which might arise when these two countries merge. One of Hofstede’s dimensions is the concept that some countries are individualistic, while ot her countries are collectivist. Basically, the individualist countries are an â€Å"I† countries – the individuals are paramount, and everybody is expected to be able to go it alone. The collectivist countries, on the other hand, see that everybody is a part of a group. This group might be a family, it might be a clan, or it might be an organization. At any rate, the members of the group, if the country is a collectivist country, show unfailing loyalty to that group (Hofstede, 1984, p. 84). In individualistic cultures, individual concerns are put ahead of group concerns; in collectivist countries, this is just the opposite (Steenkamp, 1999, p. 59). What the research shows is that China is a collectivist country – they score low on the scale for individualism, while Sweden scores high on this scale. What this means is that there is bound to be culture clashes, as the Chinese workers will have loyalty to the people inside their group – research shows that, within the collectivist cultures, the members of a group are willing to share with other members of that group, and are less willing to share with members who are not in that group (Ardchivilli et al., 2006). The Chinese workers therefore might decide to bond together and not share information with the Swedish workers, and this might be the same with the management. On the other hand, the workers and management in Sweden might be reluctant to share with anybody (Ardchivilli, 2006). Another dimension is power distance. The power distance concept has to do with hierarchies. Hierarchies may either be rigid or fluid, respected or not respected. It depends on if the country has a large power distance or a small power distance. The rigid hierarchies are often found in countries that have a large power distance. The hierarchies in these countries are in place, and they are not questioned. Therefore, the members of the hierarchies know their place in the hierarchy, and this is something tha t is accepted by the members of these groups. If there is a power inequality, this does not have to be explained. However, in the case of countries with a smaller power distance, this is not the case. If there are power inequalities within these groups, there needs to an explanation for the power inequalities. Moreover, the members of the hierarchy do not accept their fate – they strive for more equality. This means that, while they might respect the hierarchy, if they are not

The economy of Australia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The economy of Australia - Research Paper Example Average family income is in the range of 55,000 USD annually, though differing drastically depending on which part of the country the person lives in. Australia has a relatively even distribution of wealth amongst its population. The GINI index, which is a measure of wealth disparities in a country, gives Australia a score of 30.5, only .1 above the European union, and 112th largest score in the world (in the GINI index a lower score means better or more even distribution of wealth). For comparison, Sweden, with the best GINI score has a 23, while America, with a terrible score for a developed country, has a score of 45 (CIA). Australia, as a country the size of a continent (it is the 6th largest country in the world) has a wide variety of natural resources including coal, iron, precious metals, diamonds, rare earth elements, natural gas and petroleum (CIA). IT is the largest net exporter of coal in the world, and accounts for 29% of global coal exports (CIA). Australia has highly developed transportation and communication infrastructure, with wide access to high speed internet and public transpiration in cities (CIA). Its primary mode of public transpiration is bus (CIA). Its infrastructure is much worse in rural regions, which have access issues. Australia has very strict and well adhered to employee protection laws, with only a very few countries having better (Global Edge). It has much more protection for long term than temporary workers, however, and this causes the perception of abuse amongst temporary and immigrants workers, usually from other pacific Islands (Global Edge). Salaray and benefits vary highly depending on employment sector, though public health care is less accessible than almost any other developed country, not being government funded (Global Edge). Australia’s principle industry is service, like most developed countries, though this is supplemented by mining, equipment manufacturing and steel foundering. Foreign

Invitations Refusal Strategies In American And Vietnamese

Invitations Refusal Strategies In American And Vietnamese Human communication is a combination of cooperation and understanding. Success in communication depends greatly on the ability to recognize speakers communicative intentions and pragmatic meaning of their utterances. Actually, those who may be regarded as fluent in a second language owing to their phonetic, syntactic and semantic knowledge of that language may still be unable to produce language that is socially and culturally appropriate. As a result, Larina (2008) shows that numerous problems in communication occur because people do not only speak different languages but use them in different ways according to specific social and linguistic norms, values, and social-cultural convention. Many people devalue the importance of invitations refusal strategies because normally, it is a person right to say something he/she doesnt like or doesnt want to. However, it is not as simple as it is thought to be since misbehavior in this domain can result in the interlocutors feeling of being shocked, angry, or even seriously insulted. It is because every body, as a human being, expects the appreciation and respect from others. America and Vietnam are two countries with different culture so their social and linguistic norms are different as well. This paper is an attempt to provide a cross-culture comparison of ways American and Vietnamese deal with a tactful-required kind of speech act: refusing an invitation. In this paper, the similarities and differences in refusal strategies between American native speakers and Vietnamese native speakers will be discussed under three circumstances: when the invitee is at a lower status; when the invitee is at an equal status; and when the inv itee is at a higher status. To make my topic more practical, I also suggest some implications in language teaching. I hope that this paper will be a contribution to the study of cross-cultural pragmatic understanding and effective communication. Speech acts In the 1950s and 60s two philosophers of language, John Austin and John Searle, developed speech act theory from their observation that language is used to do things other than just refer to the truth or falseness of particular statements. Austins book How to Do Things with Words (1962) is the next to a series of lectures he gave at Harvard University on this topic. John Searle, a student of Austin, further developed Austins work in his book Speech Acts, which was published in 1969. Austins and Searles work appeared at a time when logical positivism was the prevailing view in the philosophy of language. They launched a strong and influential attack on this work. The logical positive view of language argued that a sentence is always used to describe some fact, or state of affairs and, unless it could be tested for truth or falsity, is basically meaningless. Austin and Searle observed that there are many sentences that cannot meet such truth conditions but that are, nevertheless, valid sentences and do things that go beyond their literal meaning. Searle and Austin argued that in the same way that we perform physical acts, such as having a meal or closing a door, we can also perform acts by using language. We can use language, for example, to give orders, to make requests, to give warnings, or to give advice. They called these speech acts. Thus people do things with words in much the same way as they perform physical actions. Paltridge (2000) provided us the definition of Speech Act: A Speech Act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. Some examples are an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment or refusal. A speech act might contain just one word such as No to perform a refusal or several words or sentences such as: Im sorry, I cant, I have a prior engagement. It is important to mention that speech acts include real-life interactions and require not only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of that language within a given culture. Socio-cultural variables like authority, social distance, and situational setting influence the appropriateness and effectiveness of politeness strategies used to realize directive speech acts such as requests (p. 15). Refusal as a speech act According to Al-Eryani (2007), a refusal is a respond negatively to an offer, request, invitation, etc. Refusals, as all the other speech acts, occur in all languages. However, not all languages/ cultures refuse in the same way nor do they feel comfortable refusing the same invitation or suggestion. Moreover, how one says no may be more important in many societies than the answer itself. Therefore, sending and receiving a message of no is a task that needs special skills. The interlocutor must know when to use the appropriate form and its function. The speech act and its social elements depend on each group and their cultural-linguistic values. Refusals are considered to be a face-threatening act among the speech acts. Face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Refusals threaten the inviters face because they contradict hisher expectations and restrict the inviters freedom to act according to hisher will. On the other hand, refusals may threaten the addressees public image to maintain approval from others. Because a failure to refuse appropriately can risk the interpersonal relations of the speakers, refusals usually include various strategies to avoid offending ones interlocutors. However, it requires a high level of pragmatic competence and the choice of these strategies may vary across languages and cultures. For example, in refusing invitations, offers and suggestions, gratitude was regularly expressed by American English speakers, but rarely by Egyptian Arabic speakers (Nelson, Al-batal, and Echols, 1996). When Mandarin Chinese speakers wanted to refuse requests, they expressed positive opinion (e.g., I would like toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.) much less frequently than American English since Chinese informants were concerned that if they ever expressed positive opinions, they would be forced to comply (Liao and Bressnahan, 1996). Politeness Politeness can be at once be understood as a social phenomenon, a means to achieve good interpersonal relationships, and a norm imposed by social conventions. So it is phenomenal, instrumental and normative by nature. According to Brown and Levinson (as cited in Politeness, 1997), politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearers face. Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that self-esteem in public or in private situations. Usually you try to avoid embarrassing the other person, or making them feel uncomfortable. Face Threatening Acts (FTAs) are acts that infringe on the hearers need to maintain his/her self esteem, and be respected. Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with these FTAs. What would you do if you saw a cup of pens on your teachers desk, and you wanted to use one, would you say, Ooh, I want to use one of those! say, So, is it O.K. if I use one of those pens? say, Im sorry to bother you but, I just wanted to ask you if I could use one of those pens? Indirectly say, Hmm, I sure could use a blue pen right now. There are four types of politeness strategies, described by Brown and Levinson (as cited in Politeness, 1997), that sum up human politeness behavior: Bald On Record, Negative Politeness, Positive Politeness, and Off-Record-indirect strategy. If you answered A, you used what is called the Bald On-Record strategy which provides no effort to minimize threats to your teachers face. If you answered B, you used the Positive Politeness strategy. In this situation you recognize that your teacher has a desire to be respected. It also confirms that the relationship is friendly and expresses group reciprocity. If you answered C, you used the Negative Politeness strategy which similar to Positive Politeness in that you recognize that they want to be respected. However, you also assume that you are in some way imposing on them. Some other examples would be to say, I dont want to bother you but or I was wondering if If you answered D, you used Off-Record indirect strategies. The main purpose is to take some of the pressure off of you. You are trying not to directly impose by asking for a pen. Instead you would rather it be offered to you once the teacher realizes you need one, and you are looking to find one. In many ways, politeness is universal. It is resorted to by speakers of different languages as a means to an end and it is recognized as a norm in all societies. Despite its universality, the actual manifestations of politeness, the ways to realize politeness and the standards of judgment differ in different cultures. On her thesis, Nguyen, T. L (2010) points out some aspects we should consider in order to achieve the goal of politeness as following: The social background of the communicator. Generally, the more educated a man is, the more he tends to show his politeness to other people. The more he knows about the suitable ways to show politeness, the better he uses them to be polite to others. Besides, the personality of the communicator is also very important here. Good-tempered person prefers to use face-saving act while bad-tempered person prefers face-threatening act when they come across the face-losing condition. The communicative circumstances. Communication is a very complicated process. In formal occasions, people tend to use formal expressions to show politeness, esp. between the new acquaintances. While in informal states, people tend to be casual to show intimacy even if it is in the very moment they meet. And that doesnt mean impoliteness. Look at the following example: Ex 1: A man came into a bar and said to the waiter: Hi! Buddy! Gimme some whisky, would ya? Although theyve never met before, the man used very casual phrases to enclose their relationship. This is a usual way to show friendliness to strangers in similar entertaining places. The social distance. The social distance between speaker and hearer is one of the factors that determine politeness behaviors. The notion of social distance refers to the consideration of the roles people are taking in relation to one another in a particular situation as well as how well they know each other, which means the degree of intimacy between interlocutors. However, there are still some exceptions. For example, people often use family names to call their close friends, and when these people speak to each other, they will use direct offer or request. But sometimes they use very formal expressions in their speech. Look at the following example. Ex 2: Husband to his wife: Would you be so kind as to hand the bread over to me? Surely we know that the wife has just quarreled with the husband and the husband is trying to amuse her in a certain way. The cultural differences. Different culture causes different views of values, which affects the criteria of politeness and leads to differences in various aspects. +Ways to greet each others and farewells. + Ways to address terms. + Ways to praise others. + Ways to express thanksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Directness and indirectness Directness and indirectness are basic form of expression, which are universal in all languages and culture. Directness is a style of communication in which speaker want to get the straight forward to the points. The speech interprets exactly and literally what the speaker said. The power of directness is the hearer does not have to look for what the speaker might have mean by uttering such and such sentence. Everything in their interaction is expressed explicitly. Misunderstanding hardly occurs. Indirectness is any communicative behavior, verbal or nonverbal that conveys something more than or different from what it literally means. In order to protect privacy, to minimize the imposition on the hearer and to avoid the risk of losing face, there is a preference for indirectness on the part of the speaker to smooth the conversational interaction. For example when conveying the pragmatic meaning I want you to do it, the English make special effort to diminish and soften their imposition and show their respect for other peoples privacy. An illustration of this is when someone says can you pass the salt? Here, they are not asking about your ability to pass the salt the literal meaning of the sentence but requesting you to pass the salt. This is very common in service encounters where can is often used to refer to something other than ability or permission. There are many socio-cultural factors affecting the directness or indirectness of utterances. Nguyen (1998) (as cited in Nguyen, T. M. P, p.13) proposes 12 factors that, in his view, may affect the choice of directness and indirectness in communication: 1. Age: the old tend to be more indirect than the young. 2. Sex: females prefer indirect expression. 3. Residence: the rural population tends to use more indirectness than the urban. 4. Mood: while angry, people tend to use more indirectness. 5. Occupation: those who study social sciences tend to use more indirectness than those who study natural sciences. 6. Personality: the extroverted tend to use more directness than the introverted. 7. Topic: while referring to a sensitive topic, a taboo, people usually opt for indirectness. 8. Place: when at home, people tend to use more directness than when they are elsewhere. 9. Communication environment/setting: when in an informal climate, people tend to express themselves in a direct way. 10. Social distance: those who have closer relations tend to talk in a more direct way. 11. Time pressure: when in a hurry, people are likely to use direct expressions. 12. Position: when in a superior position, people tend to use more directness to their inferiors. These factors help to determine the strategies as well as the number of semantic formulae used when speakers perform the act of refusing. Comparison of refusal strategies in America and Vietnamese Basing on the data collected from Nguyen, T. L (2010), I will focus on three situations in which American and Vietnamese refuse the invitations from inviters who have higher, equal and lower status than theirs respectively. (1), (2), (3), (4) means position of the utterance is presented. When the invitee is at a lower status. The components which are typically found in Americans way of refusals when the invitee is at a lower status are (1) Gratitude/appreciation + (2) Excuse/reasons/explanation + (3) Positive opinion. For example, when a student declines a professors invitation of having lunch with his/her family, he/she might answer as following: Thank you. I have already eaten. Its so nice of you to ask. [(1) Gratitude + (2) Reason + (3) Positive opinion] 2. Thank you but I just had lunch. [(1) Gratitude + (2) Reason] 3. I just ate at the Indian restaurant down the street and I got a little indigestion, thank you though. [(1) Reason + (2) Gratitude] Vietnamese native speakers tend to use the formula: (1) Thank you + (2) Addressing term + (3) Offer for alternatives or a promise for future acceptance. For example: Cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m Æ ¡n già ¡o sÆ °, Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ khi khà ¡c em sà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ½ dà ¹ng bà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯a cà ¹ng gia Ä‘Ã ¬nh thà ¡Ã‚ ºy à ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡. (Thank you, professor. I will join with your family next time.) [(1) Gratitude + (2) Addressing term + (3) Promise for future acceptance] 2. Cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m Æ ¡n già ¡o sÆ °, mà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ i thà ¡Ã‚ ºy và   gia Ä‘Ã ¬nh cà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ © dà ¹ng bà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯a tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ± nhià ªn à ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡. (Thank you, professor. Be yourself with you family.) [(1) Gratitude + (2) Addressing term + (3) Alternaitves] 3. Em cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m Æ ¡n thà ¡Ã‚ ºy, thà ¡Ã‚ ºy dà ¹ng bà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯a tà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ± nhià ªn, em ngà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"i uà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœng nÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºc trà   Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £i thà ¡Ã‚ ºy cÃ…Â ©ng Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c à ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡. (Thank you, professor. Be yourself. I will drink some tea to wait for you.) [(1) Gratitude + (2) Addressing term + (3) Alternatives] According to the results above, both American and Vietnamese use expression of gratitude/appreciation in their refusals; However, gratitude maybe in different orders (either at the beginning or at the end of the utterance). One noticeable difference occurs in this component of refusal is that Vietnamese prefer offering a promise in the future to maintain the relationship between the professor and the student. Vietnamese speakers are somehow less likely to give a straightforward respond to decline the professors invitation. In contrast, Americans often say directly the reason why they cannot accept the invitation by saying I have eaten or I just had lunch. Besides, Americans only use their popular addressing term you and I while Vietnamese tend to use many addressing terms such as Professor or Mr. in the conversation between the professor and the students. When the invitee is at an equal status. The second case involves the speaker refusing an inviter who has equal position with him/her. When refusing a classmates invitation, American normally use this formula: (1) Regret/excuse + (2) Offer of alternatives or a promise for the future acceptance. For instance: Im really sorry. I have another commitment. I am generally available. Can we set it up for another time? [(1) Regret + (2) Reason + (3) Offer an alternative] 2. What a pity. I already have plans. Please let me know the next time you go and I would love to come along. [(1) Regret + (2) Reason + (3) Promise for future acceptance] Meanwhile Vietnamese semantic formula is (1) A promise for the future acceptance/ an offer of alternative + (2) reasons as following: Ä Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ là ¡Ã‚ ºn sau nhà ©, là ¡Ã‚ ºn nà  y mà ¬nh bà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­n mà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥t rà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"i. Ä Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"ng à ½ chà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©? (Perhaps next time, Im busy now. All right?) [(1) Promise for the future acceptance + (2) Reason] 2. Ä Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™ bà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ¯a khà ¡c Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c khà ´ng? Hà ´m nay mà ¬nh mà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¯c hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ c rà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"i. (Can we set it up for another time? I have to study today.) [(1) An offer of alternative + (2) Reason] These examples show that both Americans and Vietnamese rarely say no directly to their friends even though they are in equal status. Mostly, Americans use regret like Im sorry/what a pity to start their refusal. This style is culturally and socially important and appropriate in America. In contrast, Vietnamese may feel that it is less necessary to express their regret due to the familiarity and close social distance. It reflects traditional thinking of Vietnamese that in close relationship, people should be open, friendly and informal with each other. Although both two groups tend to use the excuse and reason to soften their refusal, there is slightly different in the order between Americans and Vietnamese. Whereas Vietnamese people offer alternatives or promise for the future acceptance before giving their excuse as a way to reduce threatening face of inviter, Americans use excuse first and follow other alternatives in the future. When the invitee is at an upper status. In the last situation, the speaker, who is at a high social status, declines an invitation to go to the spa with the staff. American speakers refuse this kind of invitation by saying patterns like (1) regret + (2) reason/excuse/explanation. For example: Sorry, Ive made plans. [(1) Regret + (2) Reason (subjective reason)] 2. That sounds lovely. But I have far too much to work right now. Thank for inviting me. [(1) Positive opinion + (2) Reason (subjective reason) + (3) Gratitude] Vietnameses responses are more complicated and detailed. The usual formula is (1) Gratitude + (2) Reason Cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m Æ ¡n cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­u nhÆ °ng mà ¬nh khà ´ng Ä‘i Ä‘Æ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ £c. Mà ¬nh khà ´ng muà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœn cà ¡c nhà ¢n vià ªn khà ¡c hià ¡Ã‚ »Ã†â€™u nhà ¡Ã‚ ºm. Thà ´ng cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m cho mà ¬nh nhà ©. (Thanks, but I cant go with you. Im afraid to be misunderstood by other staffs. Sympathize with me!) [(1) Gratitude + (2) Reason (objective reason) + (3) Sympathy) 2. Cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £m Æ ¡n cà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ­u rà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥t nhià ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ u nhÆ °ng cuà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Ëœi tuà ¡Ã‚ ºn nà  y mà ¬nh phà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ £i tham dà ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ± Ä‘Ã ¡m cÆ °Ãƒ ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ ºi cà ¡Ã‚ »a Ä‘Ã ¡Ã‚ »Ã‚ ©a bà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¡n mà ¡Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¥t rà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å"i. (Thank you so much but Im going to attend one of my friends wedding at the weekend.) [(1) Gratitude + (2) Reason (objective reason)] Once again, regrets are favored by Americans when refusing an invitation. Vietnamese, however, produce many thanks as gratitude first and state reasons later. In this case, although Vietnamese bosses are at higher status than invitees, most of them say thank you to their staff in order to appreciate their staffs good will. There is a striking difference between American and Vietnamese speakers when giving reasons for their refusals. Americans often give their subjective reasons like Im so busy, Ive made my plan to inform the inviter that they cant go. Because one of American culture values is to respect individual freedom. Therefore, if the invitees give their own personal reasons, the inviter will accept their refusals and are not curious about real reasons anymore. Meanwhile, Vietnamese tend to use objective reasons to soften the face threatening act of the refusals. Conclusion America and Vietnam are two countries with different linguistic and cultural features. However, in cross-culture linguistic, beside the differences due to socio-norm dissimilarities these two countries still have something in common. When taking strategies in refusing an invitation into consideration, we can find out main similarities and differences as following: Similarities: When refusing an invitation, American and Vietnamese speakers usually use indirect strategy with most communicating partners. Both of them avoid saying no directly to their interlocutors whether they are at high, low or equal status. The common tendency is that Americans and Vietnamese give a variety of reason to avoid losing their inviters faces. Differences: Americans produce much more expression of regrets and reasons to refuse invitations. Typically, regrets often follow reasons in an utterance of refusals. Americans tend to give their subjective reasons in most cases. Vietnamese counterparts are fond of offering alternatives or a promise for acceptance in the future to make the inviter feel released. They also try to give the interlocutors the objective reasons to soften the face threatening act. Teaching implications The results of this thesis demonstrate that refusing in general and refusing an invitation to be specific is a complex task because it requires the high level of communicative competence. In order to avoid pragmatic failure, speakers need to understand fully both socio-cultural strategies used by most native speakers and the rules for their appropriate implementation. Therefore, I have some following teaching recommendations for L2 teachers: Prepare authentic materials for learners because learning a second language also means learning a second culture. Students should have a chance to get familiar with materials that are closely related to the daily activities of the country of the language they are learning. Teach language forms and functions parallel and contextually in both formal and informal situations in order to develop the learners sociolinguistic ability in an L2. Encourage students to perform different speech acts in an L2 in different situations of social status, social distance, and with reference to the gender relation between the speakers and interlocutors. Organize activities that students can have chances to communicate with both native and non-native speakers of English.

Genophilosophy Essay -- Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Genophilosophy ABSTRACT: Contemporary progress in life sciences, particularly in genetic engineering, is changing our concept of "human being" and a whole series of other philosophical and common notions. The conventional idea of "subject" will no longer be the final reference for philosophical thinking, since even the subject qua biological or psychological structure will enjoy a high degree of unpredictability. The results of gene technology require reinterpreting such concepts as reproduction, individuality, history, freedom and subjectivity. This paper focuses on the question of freedom, where freedom means the capacity to deliberate and choose between different alternatives of action. We hold that the issue of freedom is relevant for genetics. Considering that genes can "decide" between alternatives, it is possible to speak about the freedom of genes, at least in a metaphoric sense. It has been suggested that genes are "more free" than human beings because they encoded us. The human genome pro gram thus helps us to understand what kind of structures human beings are dependent upon. The main question that we address in this paper concerns the entire human genome project and all its implications including the functions and effects of each gene, the possibility of technological manipulation, what kind of freedom, history, and "human being" will eventually "survive." Recent developments in molecular biology and genetic engineering are going to change our human being concept and a whole series of other philosophical and common notions, such as "knowledge", "subject", "self", "history", "past", "science", "ethics", etc. The traditional idea of "subject" won't be any more the only final reference of philosophical thinking, si... ...philosophy ? a higher speed mutant of ancient type philosophy ? should prevail with a main task to investigate and understand the consequences of these new technologies and to represent it in scientific, social and ethical debates. Similar to when Kant urged philosophers in the eighteenth century to turn towards humans, now there is a need to turn towards genes. In continuous dialogs and partnerships with life scientists and politicians, philosophers have to develop new merits of freedom, person and evolution and to investigate the possible ways of improving human life on earth. We have to remember on the pragmatic adage, if philosophy and science lack social fruits in the long run, then it does not deserve the attention of the society. On the other hand, if the science and society do not open up for philosophical deliberations, it can have monstrous consequences.

Discuss Research Into Effects of Workplace Stress Essay

A research for workplace stress was conducted by both Marmot and Johnson and Hall. Marmot researched effects for low control and whether it was linked to more stress. Johnson and Hall researched high workload to stress. Marmot conducted an investigation with participants from London – based government civil servants, and the studies are therefore referred to as the Whitehall studies. Civil employees in London were asked to volunteer to take part in the study. High grade employees were compared to Low grade civil servants. Marmot found that workers with less control were four times likely to die of heart attack than their colleagues with more control. In addition they were more likely to suffer from other stress related illnesses such as cancers, ulcers, stomach disorders and strokes. The conclusion was obvious, that lack of control seemed to be associated with illness and they recommended that employers gave their staff more autonomy and control. The study showed to be correlational. This is because it can only be said that there appears to be an association with low control and stress-related illness. It cannot be assumed that law control is causing illness. It could be that workers with poor health are likely to achieve the higher grade jobs with more control. For all the more reasons to weaken the findings. Also the research is said to be self-reported. This is because workers filled in their own questionnaire which is inaccurate and eligible for participant reactivity. Also if the workers found out what the researchers are looking to find then the results would be biased and so they may answer the questions accordingly. For this reason the findings of the research may be inaccurate and so will not be reliable. The investigation that Johnson and Hall did was done on a large scale and they investigated with 14000 male and female Swedish workers. They used self-report questionnaires. They compared sawmill workers high job demand and low control with maintenance workers who had low job demand and high control. Sawyers in Swedish sawmill had more illnesses and higher levels of adrenaline in urine than lower risks groups. This shows that high demand and workload is associated with stress related illness. The study relies heavily on self-report techniques making them less reliable. A person perception of their workload may not be entirely accurate or unbiased. Also cause and effect is hard to establish and high demand/low control jobs may be linked to social class. Furthermore the study doesn’t take into account of individual differences. Lazarus, another psychologist, claims that it is the perception of work overload that is the important factor rather than the number of hours/the actual amount of work. In this sense, work overload is a perception held by a worker that they are required to work too long and/or too hard. Those who have high hardiness may see demand as a challenge rather than a threat; this therefore weakens Johnsons’ overall assumption of workplace stress affecting individuals in the same way. The research on workplace stress has a good significance on its stressors as it affects productivity, motivation and time off work with health problems. Therefore occupational psychologists are brought into the workplace to reduce the workplace stress. The study also has practical applications and so many employers now take stress in the workplace very seriously. Stress is bad for business as it is seen to cause ill health, absenteeism, high staff turnover and low job performance all of which costs the company money. The research also has extraneous variables. This is because despite the link between lack of job control and stress related illness found in many studies.

Satire in Jane Austen’s Pride in Prejudice

Jane Austen’s Satirical Writing: Analyzing the Satire of Social Class Within Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice delves into the issue of why social standing in a society based solely on class should not be the most important thing when evaluating the worth of a person. Through several different literary techniques – such as letters and abundant focalizers – Austen conveys important information about key issues she has with the significance placed on social standing. The theme of class and social standing is echoed constantly throughout Austen’s novel in numerous ways, highlighting several aspects of the gentry that she distrusts. The entirety of the novel focuses mainly on the distances placed between characters due to their social standing in a class based society. Regardless of how fit a person may be in either mind or capabilities, if a high sum of money is not contained within their personhood (or their estate), they are considered menial. Jane Austen uses the social relationships between her characters to satirize the importance placed on the hierarchy of class in society. Austen wrote the novel in order to define and satirize the problems that she saw in the hierarchy of class in the society of her time. Throughout the entire novel â€Å"there isn’t a character†¦who’s introduced without his income being mentioned in the next sentence† (Selznick 92). The ridiculousness of the value placed upon money – of which the middle class has very little – is evident as Austen progresses the story and the relationships between her characters – namely between Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth. The fact that, in Austen’s time, the society revolved around the gentry – whose entire idea of class and power involved money – makes it easier for the audience reading Pride and Prejudice to understand why she has satirized this issue. She does this quite flawlessly throughout the novel, relying on her knowledge of the increasing adamancy of the middle class to gain social status and power through more than just land, money and relations. The significance of social standing and the desire of the characters aspire to it can be seen in different instances throughout the novel. However, there are a few characters for which the idea of wealth and power mean very little, who strive to better themselves through their own wit and charm, rather than through the advantages of money. Elizabeth Bennet, the protagonist of the novel, is one such character. It is difficult for her to adjust to the sense of reality in which the novel exists due to the fact that the society has been permanently established and there is very little she can do to earn the credit she deserves. Yet it is due to Elizabeth’s unique personality that the audience is able to understand why her interest for the things at Pemberley and the positive change in heart she has for Mr. Darcy’s character show the dual nature of how Austen thought of the personal attainment of identity and morality balanced with her begrudged acknowledgement of a limited and restrained society (Hamilton). There are several other characters that believe the importance placed on monetary gain to be superfluous and still others that also come to realize this. It is through both the understanding and ignorance of these characters that it becomes evident just how deeply Austen distrusted the idea of an individual requiring social power in order to be recognized as an accomplished individual. Austen paid especially close attention to economic and social standing when it came to her characters for the express purpose of satirizing why their superior class was not necessarily more agreeable or accomplished than those in the lower classes. She wrote her novels with the idea that â€Å"the quality of humanity is to be judged by moral and human standards†¦not by social status; but like her own temporary snobs†¦she pays full attention to their social status first† (Copeland 121). As seen with Austen’s character Mr. Darcy, she concentrates fully on his attachments to his reputation before she delves into who he becomes and how much better off he is when he realizes the error in his way of thinking. In assessing the weight that social standing has on the progression of the story in Pride and Prejudice, one can attain a great bit of insight into why specific characters act the way they do throughout the novel. The infamous Bingley sisters, for instance, are so attached to the idea of material wealth that they fail to realize when their comments are unacceptable. Ms. Bingley herself, who is so attached to the idea that she is superior to Elizabeth in every way, cannot understand why Mr. Darcy could possibly find Elizabeth attractive in any sort of manner. It is her status-hungry and conceited personality that allows the audience to see the sheer difference between her and her brother, Mr. Charles Bingley. Unlike his sisters, he is not trying to climb up the social hierarchy to gain status and power; instead, he shows a gentler, more levelheaded side to the gentry as he falls in love with Elizabeth’s older sister, Jane. It is characters with personalities and ideals like Mr. Bingley’s that Austen revered and trusted above all others. Curiously enough, however, the hardheaded Mr. Darcy, who is very aware of his social standing, is the one character in the novel who goes through the most drastic personality change. Though Elizabeth Bennet had the positive, clever and levelheaded personality that Austen herself may have had when dealing with the social mobility of her time, it is instead the incredible change of heart that Mr. Darcy undergoes that shows how someone who is socially superior can realize the importance of wit, charm and beauty of those around him instead of being concerned only with their social status. This is how Austen is able to satirize these problems so efficiently that a modern audience does not realize that she is poking fun at the societal importance of class in her time and instead sees nothing but a charming romance. Yet Austen was doing much more than writing a simple love story. The novel was written in a transitional period when peoples’ way of thinking was shifting from a romantic look at life to a more enlightened view of living. The ideals of the eighteenth century – where people saw society as organized and divinely structured – were quickly lost to the thinkers of the more modernistic views of society in the nineteenth century, in which there was a significant loss of faith in any spiritualistic based society. Instead, nineteenth century thought turned towards the idea of the individual as the only path towards order. This new idea of placing emphasis on the self was especially important to Austen, yet she realized that the tendency of an organized and structured society was to value a person by their material wealth, rather than who the individual really was. She was able to take both ideas and mold them into her ideal situation, which can be seen in the last few lines of the novel when Elizabeth is at last accepted into Pemberley and its heritage. It is here that the individual â€Å"remains exactly where Austen would have it, in the center of a stable eighteenth-century world† (Hamilton 36). Class and social standing is a very evident and important issue for Austen and she satirizes it with the utmost diligence throughout the novel using intricate, yet simplistic designs for her characters’ relationships. For instance, instead of being forced to marry Mr. Collins for the express purpose of making a new connection on their own, Elizabeth refuses to be controlled by society’s standards and defies Mrs. Bennet’s wishes in order to â€Å"demonstrate that it is still possible for individuals to make new connections in defiance of society† (Austen 395). Tony Tanner, a British literary critic, who wrote the original introduction to Pride and Prejudice conveyed that Austen wrote about â€Å"a society which stresses social control over individual ecstasy, formality over informality, sartorial neatness over bodily abandon, and alert consciousnesses over the more Romantic states of revery and trance† and yet it is also â€Å"a society in which the individual can experience freedom as well as commitment† (Austen 395). The unfathomable amount of thought that Jane Austen put into writing Pride and Prejudice show how deeply she cared for the freedom of the individual and the ability to stand proudly in a society that overlooked individual assets for material ones. Tanner also credited Austen with the ability to create a character around the central idea of attempting to prove their individual worth within a society bound entirely by the ordinance of class. He is able to demonstrate the importance Austen placed on her characters – especially Elizabeth and Jane Bennet – finding themselves in a gentry-based society by drawing on William Blake’s In the Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Tanner argues – with Blake’s ideals in mind – that Austen takes two completely different aspects of life, energy and reason, and instead of reconciling these opposite attractions, there is a mutual coming together of complementary characteristics. He puts it plainly when he states that â€Å"she makes it seem as if it is possible for playfulness and regulation – energy and boundaries – to be united in fruitful harmony, without the one being sacrificed to the other† (Austen 106). This ability to take two unlike ideas and mesh them together without either losing its significance is exactly how Austen takes society’s emphasis on social standing and class and reverses it into something that now benefits a character where before it could only hinder (i. e. Elizabeth’s transformation from a meager middle-class girl, to the Mistress of Pemberley). However, not all critics have been kind to the way in which Austen portrays this transformational miracle of a young girl suddenly coming into great sums of money, merely by the tact and wit she shows in the way she lives. These critics find Austen’s dealing with social standing and class to be abhorrent. In fact, one such critic happens to be a famous authoress who, in writing a letter to G. H. Lewes in 1848, stated that she disliked the novel due to its frivolous dealings with the common life of both the upper and the middle-class. In her writing to the British literary and theatre critic, the authoress stated that she â€Å"should hardly like to live with her ladies and gentlemen, in their elegant but confined houses† (Austen 368). It was, in fact, Currer Bell – more widely known as Charlotte Bronte – who wrote this letter, in which the reader can clearly sense the contempt she had for Austen’s writing and the way she portrayed her characters. Though perhaps more of an criticism towards the way Austen wrote in general, Bronte was still very serious with her concern about the way in which Austen depicted her characters and their lives. She had, in Bronte’s view, â€Å"no sense of the outward world – either scenery or personal appearance† (Mazzeno 558). It is obvious that Austen’s portrayal of social standing, class, romance, money, marriage and many other themes throughout Pride and Prejudice were not held in high regard with Bronte. Though the majority of critical analyses both praising and condemning the way in which Austen depicts social standing in her novel have been done by literary thinkers, there have been other mediums through which the novel has been adapted, such that even criticism of someone as famous as Charlotte Bronte is outshined. For example, in their book Authority, State and National Character, professors Kuzmics of the University of Graz and Axtmann of the University of Wales, when addressing the problems that both Britain and Austria have seen in relation to social class when examining the issues that arose in several literary novels and dramas of the time, state that when they first studied Pride and Prejudice, they thought it had very little to do with such issues. They believed that â€Å"the fate of the Bennet sisters in rural gentry-based England just after the turn of the century revolved around such harmless matters as a ball at Netherfield† (Kuzmics 223). It is apparent that both professors believe – at least upon their first reading of it – that Austen’s novel had very little to do with the very real problems that are satirized throughout the story. Their criticism of the novel, however, in relation to how both Austrian and English society has evolved during the civilizing process is perhaps accurate without an in depth reading of Pride and Prejudice, as it seems to merely have a â€Å"relaxed air of cheerfulness and ironic, detached art of people watching† (Kuzmics 223). Conversely, after one looks past all the pleasantries that the story has to offer, one realizes that, as the professors correctly stated, it only appears to have nothing to do with issues of class. This is why the novel must be read carefully, to push past the obvious romance of the story and dig into the satirical tone in which Austen addresses such important matters. As the professors continue their research into the heart of the novel, they revealed very important aspects of Austen’s writing about social class and how it is a perfect example of English society, even to this day. She defined so clearly how England was a â€Å"face-to-face† or â€Å"shame society† in which â€Å"the opposite of social respectability is social disgrace† which was â€Å"to be avoided at all costs† (Kuzmics 227). This meant that for those families that were unable to depend on an inheritance or their relations in order to live comfortably in society, they could only rely upon prospective marriage partners for a comfortable life. It is because of this importance placed upon society’s standards of what makes a family valuable that â€Å"the social value and respectability of the potential future spouse is ascertained and made visible† (Southam 113). This, in turn, makes it difficult for someone such as Elizabeth – who is very accomplished in her wit and charm – unable to stoop so low as to accept a marriage proposal from someone she has no tender feelings toward. The idea of marrying only for money, power or social stability is part of the reason why Elizabeth Bennet is thought of as impertinent by other characters in the novel such as Mr. Collins, Lady Catherine, and at times even her own mother. Yet it is because of Elizabeth’s character and the audacity she is capable of showing to such renowned individuals that proves Austen meant her novel to be much more than a romantic story between two characters. She wanted a stab at the problems of the gentry, to affirm her belief that basing the worth of an individual merely by their material wealth was hardly the best way of assessing someone’s value (Wilhelm). She was able to do a fantastic job of satirizing the gentry throughout her novel by using several different aspects of what made a renowned person so important: money, connections and property. In the general notes of the Penguin Classic version of Pride and Prejudice, David Spring, author of Interpreters of Jane Austen’s Social World, used historian Alan Everitt’s coined term ‘pseudo-gentry’ to describe a group of individuals that were comprised mostly of those involved with the trade, who aspired to attain the lifestyle of the landed gentry. It is because of this idea that in order to be worth something, a person must own land, that several of the characters from Austen’s novel seek ‘land-based wealth,’ which is an obvious sign of â€Å"a class intensely interested in income as means to, and a sign of, status† (Austen 413). This shows that Austen’s novel is written from a point of view that sees upward mobility as a bleak, corrupt hierarchy and is much more interested in the professional middle class – the class which, in Pride and Prejudice is represented quite adeptly by the Gardiners. This idea of attempting to identify oneself in a strict society based on social class has taken on numerous different forms: books, critical essays, movies and television series. Innumerable amounts of professional critics have delved deeply into Austen’s novel’s representation of class, manners and even the social status of women in British society. In the incredibly faithful six hour long A&E/BBC adaptation of the book, Sue Britwistle – the program’s producer – wanted to include â€Å"many clear illustrations of the way that class and gender are governed by proper British manners†¦and highlight the importance of economic status in Regency England† (Selznick 92). The fact that women could only gain social standing through marriage is very apparent through all of Austen’s writing, not just Pride and Prejudice. It is incredible to think that a woman was worth nothing unless she had a substantial inheritance, as seen with Georgiana and Mr. Wickham. He cared nothing for her abilities, her looks, her personality – the only thing he desired was the hefty sum of money she would receive through inheritance. The type of relationship is seen numerous times throughout the novel and only contravened when Mr. Bingley and Mr. Darcy marry the two Bennet sisters. It is, as professors Kuzmics and Axtmann so rightly called it, a marriage market. The worth of an individual could only be seen through the instance of marriage, when a person’s monetary value was ascertained and brought into light. There are several different instances throughout the novel in which social standing and class are satirized, though none so much as the motif of carriages. Austen placed importance upon how many and of what kind carriage a person owned; it signaled wealth, status and power – which, to Austen, was not a feasible way to judge the worth of a person. The aspect of carriages even flows into the marriage market, where the prospective bride (because the groom always seemed to be worthy regardless) is critiqued and either approved or denied. Part of this process is inquiry into how many and what kind of carriages the bride owns – if any. Their chances of finding a suitable match dwindles if they do not own an acceptable carriage (Walder). This is seen when Lady Catherine tracks down Elizabeth at Longbourn, wondering how her nephew could have possibly proposed to one such as her – someone who walks places without the aide of a carriage to take her anywhere. One of the most noteworthy characters that Austen uses to satirize social standing in her novel is Lady Catherine de Bourgh. Austen utilizes Lady Catherine for the primary function of criticizing the aristocratic society in which she places her character, as Lady Catherine is one of the most prideful and overbearing personalities in the novel. Jane Austen mercilessly ridicules the hierarchal society she was raised in by using Catherine as a means to convey how prominent figures (who were only important because of their wealth) thought themselves to be experts on almost every topic, even if they had no prior knowledge of the subject of which they were speaking on. For example, when Elizabeth visits Lady Catherine at Rosings, she is not only terribly inquisitive about how the girl had been raised, but when she asks Elizabeth if she plays the piano, Catherine admits that she herself could not. Though, as she states soon afterward, if she had practiced, there was no doubt that she would have been incredible. Ironically enough, it is due to Lady Catherine’s sudden visitation with Elizabeth near the end of the novel that Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth are married. By telling her nephew of the interview that she had with Elizabeth, Catherine allows the seed of hope to appear in Mr. Darcy. Lady Catherine’s attempt at interference between her nephew and Elizabeth is ultimately the reason that the two marry – not to mention that it is a means by which Austen can convey the strong personality she bequeathed upon Elizabeth to show that one’s social station should not limit her, but help her to hold her own in what most people saw as polite-society. Through many instances of dark humor, tragedy and even comedic aspects, Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice takes a critical look at the issue of social standing in society and severely reprimands its ideals. Austen distrusted several aspects of the society in which she lived and tried to right its wrongs by satirizing the importance that the gentry placed on social standing and class. Though this may not have worked quite as well as she would have hoped – as most people view Pride and Prejudice as a mere romance story – with her cut and dry, black and white views of what a person should be judged by, Austen clearly wanted her society to realize that a person could only be considered accomplished if they truly had the talents to be – not whether or not they could afford to buy their name. Works Cited Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. London: Penguin, 2003. Print. Copeland, Edward, and Juliet McMaster. The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. Print. Hamilton, Sylvia N. Constructing Mr. Darcy: Tradition, Gender, and Silent Spaces in Jane Austen. Thesis. University of Central Oklahoma, 2007. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest, 2008. Print. Kuzmics, Helmut, and Roland Axtmann. Authority, State and National Character: the Civilizing Process in Austria and England, 1700-1900. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2007. Print. Mazzeno, Laurence W. Jane Austen: Two Centuries of Criticism. Rochester, NY: Camden House, 2011. Print. Selznick, Barbara J. Global Television Co-producing Culture. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 2008. Print. Southam, B. C. Jane Austen: the Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1999. Print. Walder, Dennis. The Realist Novel. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print. Wilhelm, Julia. Appropriations of Jane Austen's â€Å"Pride and Prejudice† in Contemporary British Fiction. Thesis. Johannes Gutenberg University, 2007. Mainz, Germany: Grin Verlag, 2008. Print.

Disambiguation - Definition and Examples in Language Studies

Disambiguation s in Language Studies In linguistics, the process of determining which sense of a word is being used in a particular context. In computational linguistics, this discriminative process is called word-sense disambiguation (WSD). Examples and Observations: It so happens that our communication, in different languages alike, allows the same word form to be used to mean different things in individual communicative transactions. The consequence is that one has to figure out, in a particular transaction, the intended meaning of a given word among its potentially associated senses. While the ambiguities arising from such multiple form-meaning associations are at the lexical level, they often have to be resolved by means of a larger context from the discourse embedding the word. Hence the different senses of the word service could only be told apart if one could look beyond the word itself, as in contrasting the players service at Wimbledon with the waiters service in Sheraton. This process of identifying word meanings in a discourse is generally known as word sense disambiguation (WSD).(Oi Yee Kwong, New Perspectives on Computational and Cognitive Strategies for Word Sense Disambiguation. Springer, 2013) Lexical Disambiguation and Word-Sense Disambiguation (WSD) Lexical disambiguation in its broadest definition is nothing less than determining the meaning of every word in context, which appears to be a largely unconscious process in people. As a computational problem, it is often described as AI-complete, that is, a problem whose solution presupposes a solution to complete natural-language understanding or common-sense reasoning (Ide and VÃ ©ronis 1998).In the field of computational linguistics, the problem is generally called word sense disambiguation (WSD) and is defined as the problem of computationally determining which sense of a word is activated by the use of the word in a particular context. WSD is essentially a task of classification: word senses are the classes, the context provides the evidence, and each occurrence of a word is assigned to one or more of its possible classes based on the evidence. This is the traditional and common characterization of WSD that sees it as an explicit process of disambiguation with respect to a fix ed inventory of word senses. Words are assumed to have a finite and discrete set of senses from a dictionary, a lexical knowledge base, or an ontology (in the latter, senses correspond to concepts that a word lexicalizes). Application-specific inventories can also be used. For instance, in a machine translation (MT) setting, one can treat word translations as word senses, an approach that is becoming increasingly feasible because of the availability of large multi-lingual parallel corpora that can serve as training data. The fixed inventory of traditional WSD reduces the complexity of the problem, but alternative fields exist . . ..(Eneko Agirre and Philip Edmonds, Introduction. Word Sense Disambiguation: Algorithms and Applications. Springer, 2007) Homonymy and Disambiguation Lexical disambiguation is well suited particularly for cases of homonymy, for instance, an occurrence of bass must be mapped onto either of the lexical items bass1 or bass2, depending on the intended meaning. Lexical disambiguation implies a cognitive choice and is a task that inhibits comprehension processes. It should be distinguished from processes that lead to a differentiation of word senses. The former task is accomplished fairly reliably also without much contextual information while the latter is not (cf. Veronis 1998, 2001). It has also been shown that homonymous words, which require disambiguation, slow down lexical access, while polysemous words, which activate a multiplicity of word senses, speed up lexical access (Rodd e.a. 2002).However, both the productive modification of semantic values and the straightforward choice between lexically different items have in common that they require additional non-lexical information.(Peter Bosch, Productivity, Polysemy, and Predicate Indexicality. Logic, Language, and Computation: 6th International Tbilisi Symposium on Logic, Language, and Computation, ed. by Balder D. ten Cate and Henk W. Zeevat. Springer, 2007) Lexical Category Disambiguation and the Principle of Likelihood Corley and Crocker (2000) present a broad-coverage model of lexical category disambiguation based on the Principle of Likelihood. Specifically, they suggest that for a sentence consisting of words w0 . . . wn, the sentence processor adopts the most likely part-of-speech sequence t0 . . . tn. More specifically, their model exploits two simple probabilities: (i) the conditional probability of word wi given a particular part of speech ti, and (ii) the probability of ti given the previous part of speech ti-1. As each word of the sentence is encountered, the system assigns it that part-of-speech ti, which maximizes the product of these two probabilities. This model capitalizes on the insight that many syntactic ambiguities have a lexical basis (MacDonald et al., 1994), as in (3): (3) The warehouse prices/makes are cheaper than the rest. These sentences are temporarily ambiguous between a reading in which prices or makes is the main verb or part of a compound noun. After being trained on a large corpus, the model predicts the most likely part of speech for prices, correctly accounting for the fact that people understand price as a noun but makes as a verb (see Crocker Corley, 2002, and references cited therein). Not only does the model account for a range of disambiguation preferences rooted in lexical category ambiguity, it also explains why, in general, people are highly accurate in resolving such ambiguities.(Matthew W. Crocker, Rational Models of Comprehension: Addressing the Performance Paradox. Twenty-First Century Psycholinguistics: Four Cornerstones, ed. by Anne Cutler. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005) Also Known As: lexical disambiguation

Deserts Essays - Ecosystems, Desert, Geomorphology, Xerocole, Rain

Deserts Essays - Ecosystems, Desert, Geomorphology, Xerocole, Rain Deserts A desert is an area defined by it has less than 50 cm of precipitation annually. Not all deserts are dry and sandy.Most of the worlds deserts tend to lie between 20 degrees to 30 degrees north and south latitude. North Africa, south western North America, the Middle East, and Australia support the largest deserts, but there are smaller deserts in other regions. Overall deserts cover one fifth of the earths surface.Hot desert climates are hot and dry, with high temperatures, usually around the 45 degrees Celsius mark which inturn with the low rainfall makes life in the desert very hard to support. At night the temperature can drop to around 18 degrees Celsius. With the hot deserts high temperatures and low rainfall amount, it can make life in the desert hard to support. The main way in which animals and plants survive is by adaptation, they adapt to survive in their surroundings. The Australian desert is the greatest example of a desert in which animals and plants have adapted for the ir survival.Desert plants use various techniques to reduce water loss and increase water intake. Many plants store their water in their leaves or another space. When a plant stores water in its leaves, it must keep it their, without loosing it. Some plants have a low Surface Area to Volume ratio which reduces water evaporation. There is another plant which has the ability to twist its leaves, so its thinnest side is facing the sun, thus it heats less, then less water evaporation occurs. But before plants store their water carefully, they must obtain it. The main way in which desert plants obtain their water is by having a deep root system which are extremely effective.Desert animals use a variety of different techniques of avoiding dehydration. Some animals use the fact that night time is cooler to their advantage (nocturnal). Others store water in a specialised area in their body (camel). The Rock Marsupial survives the high tempretures by living in rock crevices, or in a cave. The y found that inside the caves the tempreture is considerably lower, and the humidity is higher, therefor decreasing waterloss.

Perk Up!

Perk Up! Writers need to be paid. Fact. But sometimes, you don’t have to be paid in cold, hard cash. Working for perks in lieu of monetary compensation has always been an integral part of the industry. Of course, this doesn’t help pay the bills, but these perks are definitely not to be sneezed at, especially if you target products and services you would spend your money on anyway. The first thing you need to understand is that virtually every major company in the world has a PR and marketing department. The reason these departments exist is to spread the word about their business, and this is where you come in. An easy starter is to write to companies asking what new or upcoming products are available, and if they would like anything reviewed in exchange for samples. Don’t go crazy and start demanding a new TV. The more expensive the item, the more likely it will be that the manufacturer will only loan it to you and expect it back. To secure items you may have to ‘pitch’ the manufacturer, saying specifically who you intend writing for, and provide information like circulation figures and market demographics. Most importantly, highlight why it would be in the company’s best interests to be featured in this particular publication. A concept prominent in consumer magazines is the ‘road tested’ feature where new-to-market products are tried out. Look for extra sweeteners you can offer such as a post on your personal blog, a Tweet, or even an Amazon review. The more exposure you can offer, the better. Personally, I review a lot of books, albums and computer games. Therefore, I work with a lot of publishers, publicists, and record labels. The first step is to approach these people (their contact details are freely available online) and ask them to add you to any mailing lists they keep. Then you’ll be among the first to know of any new or upcoming releases, as well as press trips and interview opportunities. In 2012 I fired off a quick email to the developer of my favorite computer game asking for a ‘check disc,’ including a link to my blog and mentioning my reach on social media. The company, eager to generate publicity ahead of a new launch, was more than happy to accommodate. Furthermore, theyve sent me a new and updated version of the game every year since, amounting to over $250 worth of free software. In fact, my expenditure on entertainment has been practically non-existent for years. With a little experience, you can ‘build’ features from the ground up, get paid AND collect masses of free swag. Let’s suppose you wanted to go on a camping trip. Pitch your idea to editors who may be interested, then, when a commission is secured, use it to approach various other entities. Firstly, you are going to need specialist equipment and camping gear, so contact outdoor suppliers and ask them to kit you out. New boots? Track down well-known brands and ask. And how about a camera to document the event? Again, ask. Standard practice is to offer to give their product a subtle ‘in copy’ mention (â€Å"I couldn’t feel a thing in my new Karrimor hiking boots!†) and a ‘thank you’ at the end of the article, along with perhaps a link to their website. You might not be able acquire everything you require, but, taking into account the fee you will receive from the publication, you should at least be able to procure enough to make the trip profitable. To help make the whole process easier, try using a service like PRweb which hooks you up with PR companies and enables you to put out requests for products or services. They exist to make your role as a journalist easier. http://service.prweb.com/about/prweb-for-journalists/

Compare and contrast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 4

Compare and contrast - Essay Example Some studies have argued that the nutritional value of both fresh and frozen food is the same, and in some cases, can be higher for frozen/canned foods. This is exactly what has been suggested by a research conducted in 1997 by the concerned department in one of the American universities. Furthermore, research has concluded that canned pumpkins may provide 540% of Vitamin A versus 26% for the same amount of fresh pumpkins (Squires, 1997). Similarly, canned poultry and fish, which are high in protein content, remain unaffected by heat and, therefore, possess the same nutritional value as that of their fresh counterparts. In fact, the canning process ensures higher calcium content in canned poultry and fish than otherwise. On the other hand, differences in nutritional value between fresh and canned produce have been observed. This is because of the time at which the food is picked. Fresh food (including fruits and vegetables) contains highest nutritional value when purchased in season. Grocery stores often indulge in the practice of picking fresh produce before it is fully ripe. On the contrary, food picked for canning is often fully ripe. Thereafter, the heating process during the canning process destroys the vitamins resulting is lower nutritional value (Rinzler, 2011). According to one study, the amount of carotenoids (convertible into Vitamin A by human body) is depleted by the heating process in canned foods (Edwards & Lee, 1986). Furthermore, the use of chemical preservatives to prolong the shelf life of canned foods can prove to be highly unhealthy, yet deceptive. This is because, while the food may â€Å"appear† to be fresh, it may have become toxic or stale by being kept that way for a long time. I have personally experienced this when using a can of mushrooms where the mushrooms ‘appeared’ fresh but gave me food poisoning the next day of consuming it. Next, there exists controversy related to the cost of canned vs. fresh food. Most p eople seem to believe that canned food is more costly than fresh food. This is true, to some extent, because canned food costs groceries more to purchase compared to fresh foods (Price, 2012). Therefore, these high costs of purchase may be passed on to customers as high prices. Furthermore, the higher costs of canned food reflect the added convenience that people purchase when they pay a higher price for such food. Canned food can technically be bought at any grocery store or supermarket and may be ready to consume, requiring no prior preparations. The lower costs of fresh food are attributed to the lower convenience attached to such food as fresh food, including fruits and vegetables, may have to be cleaned, washed or prepared prior to consuming it. Owing to the convenience (no prior preparation required) offered by canned foods, it is no wonder that the working class has been drawn towards them in their busy routines (Strasser, McGovern, & Judt, 1998). On the contrary, there are s ufficient reasons to suggest that fresh and organic food costs significantly more than canned food. The term â€Å"organic† has given a new meaning to what was previously known as ‘fresh’ food. This label has increased the cost of the food possessing the label as organic produce, unlike canned and processed food, is usually free from harmful chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Ricke, Loo, & Johnson, 2012). Most

Write a response to the film Genetics and Public Policy. What was new Movie Review

Write a response to the film Genetics and Public Policy. What was new to you What surprised you Did you agree with the arguments presented - Movie Review Example Watching the film, I found it amazing to what extent genes control human organisms. I have read about genes before, but I had no idea about the latest findings in the industry. They make up chromosomes, which compose DNA. The documentary states that 99% of DNA people have are identical and only 1% makes all people unique. Any deviations in chromosomes result in disabilities or certain diseases like sickle cell disease or Down syndrome. Indeed, if people can observe the development of chromosomes and detect deviations in their number or structure, they can help couples have healthy children. It is interesting that scientists can use genetic testing to â€Å"program children†; for instance they could influence eyes color or even sex of a future child. In this way people can predict and support healthy and sustainable future generation. The biggest surprise for me is that scientists do not share common views on the need of regulation for genetic testing. Some of them say that government already pays too much attention to what they do and it makes the process slower. The other group of scientists believes that the process is already too fast and government should impose more regulations on genetic testing. This group of scientists is afraid of opening a new Pandora box because nobody knows how far people can go in search of a perfect human being. I agree with the arguments which support stronger regulations for genetic testing. It is a great progress in science, but its results will support unwanted consequences such as greater gap between the rich and the poor. All scientists agree that genetic testing is a costly procedure; as a result, only rich people will afford to use it to have better and healthier children. Poor children will be deprived of these advances and their children will be weaker. Moreover, disabled people will be oppressed by the fact that their parents could prevent their disability but they did not do it. Developing technologies

A Substance Misuse Patient, Either Drug or Alcohol Use Essay

A Substance Misuse Patient, Either Drug or Alcohol Use - Essay Example Unfortunately for the patient in question, his situation has been so bad that it has resulted into an addiction (Furniss et al., 2000). Basically, the situation deteriorated because the patient did not have access to effective counselling to win him out of the misuse of drugs when the situation was first started. This makes the patient an ideal subject for a case study because it goes a long way to outline the basic responsibilities of substance misuse nurses on drugs and alcohol that have been neglected (British Medical Association & Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 2002). It is unfortunate that most substance misuse nurses pay so much attention to treatment and cure instead of prevention. Once this happens, a lot of people whose level of understanding on drug use is low will be affected in the long run. What is even more disturbing is the fact that once the effects of substance abuse become deteriorated, it becomes difficult to reverse them. Should nurses be proactive in their duties, it would go a long way to educating the masses on the need to resist from certain drugs, the need to take drugs within prescribed quantities, the need to avoid the use of drugs that are not prescribed (Fought, Shorr, & Ray, 2010). The situation of the current patient is so bad that he is currently exhibiting greater percentage of the side effects associated with the misuse of chlordiazepoxide. For instance the patient constantly shows signs of confusion and forgetfulness (Chan, Lunn, & Donoghue, 2007). When the patient is listening to given instructions, he finds it very difficult to follow up to its logical conclusion. For this reason, it is common to see that the patient will start executing a particular command but after a short while will divert into doing something else that was not within the instruction. Once a while also, the patient reports of drowsiness and there have been times that the patient has actually collapsed as an effect of the chemical reaction s that the drug undertakes in him. During some of these occasions however, the patient is able to quickly gain consciousness. Quite recently also, it has been discovered that the patient has started developing skin eruptions, yellow eyes and nausea (Keene, et al. 2007). Clinical diagnosis indicates that the patient’s situation has come to such a level because the patient actually has acute intoxication with alcohol. Medically, this condition arises as a result of excessive alcohol content in the body of the patient. This condition of acute intoxication with alcohol is not ideal for the intake of chlordiazepoxide but due to the low level of education on the part of the patient, he kept combining these two situations till it has grown this worse (Tully, et al., 2012). This again explains the neglected roles of substance misuse nurses and the need to use the present paper to review the national and local framework for medicine in the United Kingdom context and understudy the eff ect of these frameworks on the healthcare delivery system in United Kingdom. Overview of National and Local Frameworks for Medicine Use As a nation, the United Kingdom has strict regulations that guide the use of medicines. These regulations come in two major forms, which are national and local frameworks for medicine use. The national frameworks serve as the constitutional

Sustainability at Millipore Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Sustainability at Millipore - Case Study Example Due to the reduction of the emissions of GHG, the depletion of ozone layer minimised and the desertification of the agricultural lands also reduced significantly. Therefore, this strategy might act extremely effective for the organization of Millipore thereby amplifying its environment friendly sustainable business operation. The management of the organization of Millipore also needs to reduce its dependence over the petroleum based products. This can help them to reduce the amounts of solid wastes thereby decreasing its negative impacts over the climate and the globe. Reduction of solid waste is one of the important initiatives for reducing the rate of global warming that not only can save the human beings but also the whole ecosystem as well. Apart from the above mentioned strategies, the management should focus more on reduction of carbon emission and water usage which definitely can lead to decreasing major environment issues like global warming. However, in order to make these e nvironmental sustainability initiatives successful, the organization needs to use varied types of upgraded boilers, compressors and lightings. This helped the organization of Millipore to fulfil its sustainability mission. In this age of extreme global warming, the prime concentration of the organizations is reduction of green house gas emissions (GHG). Similarly, the director of Millipore, Mr. David Newman also decided to implement varied types of solar panels and solectria inverters in order to reduce over-dependence over non-renewable products. Along with this, he also instructed the use of upgraded boilers and machines in order to reduce the emissions of waste materials in the environment. Moreover, reverse osmosis procedure is also used in the manufacturing plants also proved effective for the organization in reducing its emissions. All these strategies are

I wrote into the assignment criteria box Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

I wrote into the assignment criteria box - Essay Example orm of foreign direct investment, the companies buy controlling stakes in domestic firms and then reenergize the whole structure of the firm to make it more profitable and competitive. Their strategy have been quite simple as even a layman would believe in putting money in those areas or economy where the market if not growing at some astronomical rate but at least have a positive growth despite sluggishness (Krugman, 1998). The merger movement around the world has caused massive effect with growing rate of cross-border mergers and acquisitions. Being termed as an important tool for investment from industrial nations to developing ones, these merger and acquisition are relatively small size in if compared with mergers as compared to those in advanced countries, it gives the receiving developed nation a much needed boost to the economies of their nations. The involvement of transnational companies in the domestic market also provides the developing nation an environment of technologic al and managerial efficiency. The major bane in the growth of developing nation has been the lack of modern approach in management practices and use of technology. The indigenous research of the government and other agencies has been either lagging behind or has failed to yield any result. The need of the hour for the government is to adopt newer policies and its approach to engage transnational companies in its territory would yield higher growth in GDP and per capita income. The capability of domestic companies also gets strengthen in a pro-growth environment. As a whole the government’s agenda of creating an era of growth and prosperity gets fulfilled in various phases. The purpose of government selling its controlling state in public sector units or state enterprises is for strengthening the support system of the nation. Support system in this scenario is actually the infrastructure that would provide the base to individuals, investors and other enterprises in delving the nation

Project management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Project management - Coursework Example Several studies revealed that majority of traffic collision is caused by human factors related to intoxication or the use of cell phones while driving (Strayer & Drews, 2004; Strayer, Drews, & Johnston, 2003; Williamson, Feyer, Friswel, & Finlay-Brown, 2001). In some cases, other forms of visual or sound distraction such as the presence of billboard in highways or the use of loud radio could also promote road accidents (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2008). To prevent unnecessary deaths caused by traffic collision, this project initiation document will discuss the importance of joint training and exercises as a way to improve the multi-agency response to road traffic collision. Project Aim / Goal The aim of this project is to develop and implement a joint training and exercises programs that will improve the multi-agency response to road traffic collision. Project Objectives The following project objectives will be considered to ensure that the project goal is attainable: 1. To e ncourage the health care team (doctors, emergency care medical personnel, and nurses) to participate and work together with other related agencies like police department, traffic enforcement group, and the transport department in developing and implementing a joint training and exercise programs that will reduce the number of controllable traffic collision that happens each day; and 2. To educate the public about human factors that can contribute to controllable traffic collision and how to avoid vehicular accidents. Project Benefits This project will not only increase the public awareness concerning the public with regards to the primary causes of traffic collision, it will also serve as a means of reducing the number of deaths due to vehicular accidents. Since vehicular accidents related to traffic collision could create socio-economic and emotional problems on the part of the victims’ family and loved ones, the project benefits can be more than the cost of encouraging the health care team (doctors, emergency care medical personnel, and nurses) to participate and work together with other related agencies like police department, traffic enforcement group, and the transport department in developing and implementing a joint training and exercise programs that aims to reduce the number of controllable traffic collision. Project Costs Based on the work breakdown structure presented on page 4, the estimated cost of this project is ?2,330,000. (See Appendix I – Summary of Work Breakdown Structure on page 8) Business Case Based on the World Health Organization (2002) report, the global death associated with traffic collision is roughly 5 million each year whereas physical injuries caused these vehicular accidents can be as much as 12% of the total annual deaths (Peden, McGee, & Sharma, 2010). On top of the large number of road traffic injury cases, between 20 to 50 million people who becomes a victim of traffic collision has suffered from serious physi cal injuries (Geetha et al., 2010). Since the annual hospital cost of physical injuries related to traffic collision is between $65 billion to $100 billion (Geetha et al., 2010), implementing the proposed project with a budget of ?2,330,000 can be considered highly feasible. By implementing this project, the government will be able to save more people from going through the burden of paying large amount of money on hospital bills but also save the lives of thousands and

I wrote into the assignment criteria box Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

I wrote into the assignment criteria box - Essay Example orm of foreign direct investment, the companies buy controlling stakes in domestic firms and then reenergize the whole structure of the firm to make it more profitable and competitive. Their strategy have been quite simple as even a layman would believe in putting money in those areas or economy where the market if not growing at some astronomical rate but at least have a positive growth despite sluggishness (Krugman, 1998). The merger movement around the world has caused massive effect with growing rate of cross-border mergers and acquisitions. Being termed as an important tool for investment from industrial nations to developing ones, these merger and acquisition are relatively small size in if compared with mergers as compared to those in advanced countries, it gives the receiving developed nation a much needed boost to the economies of their nations. The involvement of transnational companies in the domestic market also provides the developing nation an environment of technologic al and managerial efficiency. The major bane in the growth of developing nation has been the lack of modern approach in management practices and use of technology. The indigenous research of the government and other agencies has been either lagging behind or has failed to yield any result. The need of the hour for the government is to adopt newer policies and its approach to engage transnational companies in its territory would yield higher growth in GDP and per capita income. The capability of domestic companies also gets strengthen in a pro-growth environment. As a whole the government’s agenda of creating an era of growth and prosperity gets fulfilled in various phases. The purpose of government selling its controlling state in public sector units or state enterprises is for strengthening the support system of the nation. Support system in this scenario is actually the infrastructure that would provide the base to individuals, investors and other enterprises in delving the nation

Advertising and Identity through Consumer Culture Essay Example for Free

Advertising and Identity through Consumer Culture Essay Never before in the history of the modern world has advertising become so prevalent, ubiquitous, and an â€Å"undeniable essential† to a modern man’s everyday life than that of our century. Advertising images of all sorts, now flood public spaces: from billboards with eroticized images to the blinding electronic billboard, down to the â€Å"comfort ads† which oddly stares back in the rest rooms of malls. Magazines and televisions are also full of products that entice the readers and the audience to buy and patronize a certain brand. Similarly, cultural events cannot be seen without a popular brand nor is a sporting event complete without a corporate ad. Indeed, advertising has become part of today’s culture and has become an inescapable ghost that dominates our media, our road, and our home. The road towards the advertising era began its transition during the 1880’s to1920’s. It is during this period that ads focused largely on the products themselves. Products took the center stage, using heavy texts to introduce, feature and market the product. â€Å"Real† representation of people were absent in advertisements, but rather representation of people who stand for the social values such as   family structure and status differentiation were seen during this stage (Jhally, 1990, p. 228). With the written material properly explaining visual the visual imagery, ads during this period were instructional. At the same time they were also educational as well as promotional. These ads taught the consumer audience how to read commercial messages. However, by the postwar period, education was replaced for a puzzle of numerous visual messages. Visual images then took the limelight during the 1950’s. Texts were highly reduced and were then replaced by icons and images to allure the consumer. These visual imageries eventually took over the product. The image, rather than the product, became the main message that is communicated to the consumer audience. The once educational ads were now replaced with a hodge-podge of photos and visuals (Jhally, 1990, p. 229). As the 21st century ushered in, the idea of â€Å"identity† was then marketed to the buying audience, convincing the public that the products they buy represent their identity; identity which can now be brought in the nearest mall and will assure not only satisfaction but happiness as well. This paper will discuss the contemporary culture in the advertising industry as it permeates and even molds today’s idea of beauty, style, as well as identity. Similarly, it will discuss how people are influenced by this media medium by citing several studies and researches related to the mentioned topic. Apart form this, it will also discuss the benefits and the disadvantages brought about by the culture of advertising. Ours is an era whose society is in constant struggle to find their true identity. Never before has a mankind been so engrossed in a quest for an identity, life, and beauty only to be directed to the market place. Ads that promote images with identity are prevalent. A popular celebrity endorsing this line of clothing, for instance, will give the audience the message that buying these kinds of clothes will make you happy, beautiful, or popular. Likewise, purchasing this brand of shoes will make you a part of the â€Å"cool† or â€Å"in† group. Through these visual representations, consumers desire to be like the image they see on ads, and the consumption of this certain product will help them imagine, create, and sustain their idea of themselves, their image, and their identity. The idea of beauty is perhaps one of the most capitalized and used advertising ideas. Numerous magazines often represent a beautiful woman as someone who is skinny, blond, tall, and has a porcelain-like skin.   These faces are evidently plastered on every magazine cover. Of course, a brand logo is placed along side the photo of the model as if saying: You can be just like me if you use this brand†. Aside from this, almost every celebrity has the same body type. A small or fat woman would consequently mean that she is not conforming to society’s image of beauty, which therefore automatically makes her ugly. With all of these images, it is no wonder why millions of girls from different parts of the world accept the idea that in order to be beautiful, one should look like a cover girl or a celebrity. This also means that buying that certain skin care line or wearing the same brand of clothes would automatically transform them as they conform to the idea of beauty as well as their identity. In a report which studied the consumption patterns of youth, consumers regard consumption not as a mode of cultural activity, but rather as a rationalized process of fulfilling their desires. This means that a number of individuals actually believe that buying a product will fulfill their desire to look a certain way. Since their idea of perfection is duly represented by images of stunning models and celebrities, their pursuit of what is perfect can only be realized by using the same products or items that these models endorse. Although these ideals of perfection somehow give directions to the consumers, the truth is the images presented are first and foremost unattainable. More often than not, the audience is oblivious to the fact that the images they see, both on screen and on print, has already undergone a process of â€Å"editing† in order to make it even more perfect. The idea of beauty did not used to be boxed up with the idea of being skinny. In fact, during the prehistoric times, women are portrayed not as a wafer thin woman but rather as a full-bodied female with breasts, hips, abdomen, and thighs. The statuette called Venus of Willendorf for instance, has been revered as a goddess of beauty and fertility. Similarly, the statuette Venus of Moravany and Mal’ta are both revered because of their physical attributes. These images of beauty however, began to change as advertising emphasized the need to fit in a size two dress. This is particularly used by companies who promote diet and weight -lose products. Likewise, other manufacturers and business also saw the need to create slimming pills, slimming tea, and so much more. This eventually led other manufacturers to create clothes that will emphasize a woman’s thin frame. Apart from a person’s physical attribute, a person’s lifestyle is also used as a handle by the advertising world to create a market-based image. According to the same report, more than half of the young consumers believed that the products they buy represent their identities and lifestyle in some way. For them, identities are expressed in a variety of products such as shoes, clothes, cosmetics etc. Even seemingly trivial things are supposed to express their lifestyles. For instance, 36 percent of young males answered that their choices of telephone/ mobile equipment represent in some way their identities, and 63 percent of young females think that their choices of hair salon is a representation of their identities (Report on Youth Consumption Trend, 1994, p. 114). The one hour documentary entitled â€Å"Merchants of the Cool† is perhaps one of the most scathing examinations of how popular culture and advertising are entwined together. Exactly as the title suggests â€Å"Merchants of the Cool† chronicles how the media both reflects and influences pop culture. A large amount of money is paid to â€Å"cool hunters† in order to find out what is cool and what is hip. This information is then coursed through mediums such as the television. MTV for example, pay its â€Å"cool† audiences as well as the hosts and performers to attend to their party to make it look even â€Å"cooler†. Behind all these happening, there lies a big logo of a soft drinks brand. Much like how a ventriloquist controls a puppet, it is also the same with how a company and how advertising is behind how the image of â€Å"coolness† is presented (Frontline, 2001). This construction of a sense of identity, according to British sociologist Robert Bocock (1993), can be seen as a process which may make use of items of consumption such as clothing, footwear, popular music or sporting activities, including being a supporter of particular music groups, singers or soccer clubs. Such consumption patterns could be used as a central means of defining who is a member and who is outside a specific group. It is through material items that eventually determine an individual’s social group, which then ultimately gives him or her identity. A brand is a powerful tool that associates commodities with consumers because it symbolizes various elements of the product so that consumers have relative liberty in finding the association between their identities and commodities. The visual images, even the endorser of the brand also plays a crucial role in alluring the consumer to believe that by purchasing this product, you will become like me or that you will be popular or will have an identity like mine (Bocock, 1993, p. 4). However, the more important question is how does an individual associate his or her identity through the purchase of a certain brand or a certain product? The research mentioned above illustrates the characteristic mentality of a young consumer. I do not care about what other people choose. I think of design as an important consideration when I choose things, and my choices of commodities express a part of my personality. This statement underlines the prevalent belief that the freedom of choice of the consumer leads to the expression of his or her identity. In other words, since it is the choice of the individual that made him or her wear this particular pair of shoes, this particular pair then represents the identity of the individual who made the decision. Representative form of their self-identities derives from the individual level; individual consumers make a decision by themselves to buy things in order to express their own identities (Hattori, 1997, p.10).